She fo-vagher çhengoaylleeaghtsheeanchoryssaghtys, jannoo studeyrys er corys sheean hengey ny possan dy hengaghyn er lheh. Neughollrish sheeanaghtys, as eshyn bentyn rish croo rieugh as toiggal sheeanyn ghlare, ta sheeanchoryssaghtys soilshaghey aghtyn obbraghey sheeanyn mastey çhengey er lheh ny harrish çhengaghyn.
Ayrn scanshoil sheeanchoryssaghtys, shen jannoo studeyrys dy 'eddyn magh cre'n sheeanyn ta nyn unnidyn discreajagh 'sy çhengey. Myr sampleyr, 'sy Ghaelg, ta /p/ as /b/ nyn unnidyn discreajagh - myn-heeanyn. T'eh ry-akin ayns jeesyn sloo, myr sampleyr paa as baa; ta bun anchasley rish y cheilley oc, ga nagh vel agh un anchaslys sheean eddyr oc. Er y laue elley, ta fockley magh eigsoylagh ec /p/ croghey er yn ynnyd echey bentyn da sheeanyn elley, agh er lesh loayreyderyn dooghyssagh, ta ny focklyn magh shoh yn sheean cheddin. Myr sampleyr, ta ennalaghey ec /p/ ayns paag agh nagh vel ayns spaag. Ayns çhengaghyn elley, myr sampleyr Thaish as Quechua, ta'n scansh shoh eddyr sheeanyn ennalit as neuennalit geddyr-scarrey myn-heeanyn.
Chammah as ny sheeanyn sloo as bun oc (ny myn-heeanyn), ta sheeanchoryssaght jannoo studeyrys er eddyraghey sheeanyn, gollrish y /p/ harrish, as cooishyn myr troggal shillab, trimmid, blass as bingys.
Ta eieyn sheiltynys sheeanchoryssagh goll er cur er mynscrutaghey glare cowree, ga nagh vel ny unnidyn nyn sheeanyn. Foddee oo jannoo ymmyd jeu myr shen er y fa dy vel ny reillyn shoh er nyn gummey myr greieyn cadjin mynscrutaghey, cha nel son çhengey er lheh.
Cowraghey myn-heeanyn
Diagram jeh oltyn yn ghooBreeocklyn Arabish Cadjin jeianagh as Ewnish rere sheeanchoryssaghtys. Cur tastey da'n aght t'ad lhie harrish y cheilley - ta loayreyderyn y yees eddyraghey a, i as u giare veih y cheilley, agh cha nel breeocklyn meanagh giare ec Arabish, choud's nagh vel scarrey liurid vreeockle ec Ewnish.
Ta corys aascreeu kuse dy hengaghyn rere yn eie myn-heeanagh; ta un lettyr (ny cochiangle lettyryn) corrym rish un vyn-heean, as bun ry skyn. Dy slanjeant, foddee loayreyder screeu dy kiart red erbee foddee ad gra, as lhiah dy kiart red erbee ta screeut. Cha nel shen slane goll er jannoo firrinagh rieau. Ayns Gaelg, myr Baarle (as cooid mooar jeh obbyr çhengoaylleeaght 'sy Vaarle), ta lettraghey neughollrish ec yn myn-heean cheddin (m.s., ta'n chied vreeockle cheddin ec jannoo as tiggad) as foddee un lettyr (ny cochiangle lettyryn) cowraghey myn-heeanyn neughollrish (m.s., cha nel slane as nane goll er fockley magh 'syn aght cheddin).
Son shaghney neuvaghtallys cairscreeuagh, ta sheeanchoryssaghtyseyryn cowraghey myn-heeanyn lesh screeu ad eddyr daa scrabage er oaie " / / " (gyn ny cowraghyn aaraa). Ta ny sheeanyn hene goll er cur eddyr lhoobeenyn kerrinagh: " [ ] " (reesht gyn cowraghyn aaraa). Dy cadjin, ta ny lettyryn eddyr tool-slashyn rere lettyraght y çhengey hene ny çhengey y screeuyn, agh ny t'eddyr lhoobeenyn kerrinagh, t'ad rere corys screeu sheeangh, myr sampleyr yn Abbyrlhit Sheeanagh Eddyr-ashoonagh.
Recortys myn-heeanyn
Jannoo recortys myn-heeanyn
Jalloo jeh breeocklyn Arabish jeinagh as Ewnish rere sheeanaghtys. Cur tastey dy vel ny kiarkil slane scarrit – cha nel nane breeockle y hengaghyn ec loayreyderyn y çhengey elley.
Ta studeyrys sheeanchoryssagh er çhengey goaill stiagh jeeaghyn er fysserree (aascreeu sheeanagh jeh glare loayreyderyn dooghyssagh) son jannoo magh cre ny myn-heeanyn bunneydagh as cre ta myn-heean-hasht ny çhengey. Ga dy vel çhengey eddyraghey beggan myn-heeanyn, foddee, ta loayreyderyn jannoo ymmyd jeh ram ny smoo sheeanyn sheeanagh. Myr shen, foddee myn-heean ayns çhengey er lheh goll er fockley magh ayns ram aghtyn.
Myr rheynn jeh'n studeyrys shoh, t'ad jeeaghyn son jeesyn sloo. Shen jees focklyn veih'n çhengey cheddin, gyn agh anchaslys un sheean rish y cheilley, as loayreyderyn ny çhengey goaill rish ad myr focklyn anchasley. Raad ta jees sloo ayn, ta ny daa heeanyn shoh nyn myn-heeanyn anchasley. Ny yei shen, er y fa nagh nod oo cronnaghey dagh ooilley myn-heean liorish yn aght shoh, t'ad jannoo ymmyd jeh aghtyn elley neesht.
Anchaslys myn-heeanagh, ny fo-heeanyn
Mannagh vel daa sheean cosoylagh rish y cheilley lesh daa vyn-heeanyn anchasley, t'ad goll er enmys myr fo-heeanyn y vyn-heean cheddin. Myr sampleyr, foddee bleaystagh neuchronnaneagh (/p/, /t/, /k/) goll er ennalaghey. Ayns Gaelg, ta bleaystee neuchronnaneagh goll er ennalaghey ec toshiaght shillab as trimmid er, mannagh vel /s/ roish. Shen ry-akin my t'ou cur mair roish ny meillyn ayd traa t'ou gra 'paag' as 'spaag'. Cur tasht er yn anchaslys ennal.
Cha nel fockle Gaelg as /p/ neuchronnaneagh ec y toshiaght, myr shen ayns y Ghaelg, ta [pʰ] cronnaneagh (ta’n [ʰ] cowraghey cronnaneagh) as [p] neuchronnaneagh nyn fo-heeanyn y vyn-heean cheddin /p/.
Sampleyr elley: ayns Gaelg as ymmodee çhengaghyn elley, ta ny lhiattee/l/ as /r/ nyn myn-heeanyn er lheh (jees sloo: 'laa', 'raa'). Agh ayns Koreeish, t’ad nyn vo-sheeanyn y vyn-heean cheddin, as rere y reill cadjin, ta [ɾ] çheet roish breeockle, as cha nel [l] (m.s. Seoul, Korea). Beagh loayreyder dooghyssagh ginsh dhyt dy vel yn [l] ayns Seoul as y [ɾ] ayns Korea y sheean cheddin dy jarroo. Rere sheiltynys, t’eh taghyrt dy vel inçhyn y loayreyder Koreaish cur enney er y vun-sheean /l/, as rere y stayd sheeanagh (my vel eh roish breeockle ny dyn), t’eh cur magh [ɾ] ny [l]. Beagh loayreyder Koreaish elley clashtyn yn jees myr yn myn-heean bunneydagh, as er lesh beagh ad y sheean cheddin. Shoh un fa dy vel blass baghtal er y chooid smoo jeh sleih tra t’ad loayrt çhengey nagh ren ad gaase clashtyn ee. Ta’n inçhyn ayd reaghey ny sheeanyn t’ad clashtyn rere myn-heeanyn y çhengey dooghyssagh oc.
Ta ymmodee aghtyn ayn son dy feddyn magh cre’n myn-heean ec fo-heean. Noi foddey-oayllys, cha nel ad jannoo ymmyd jeh caslys myn-heean dagh traa. Ny keayrtyn, er coontey shen, ta myn-heean fakin dy ve neuloaghtagh as cha bentyn rish feerid sheeanagh ghlare. Shegin dooin cooinaghtyn, ga dy nod shin reaghey fo-heeanyn rere myn-heeanyn son oltscarrey çhengoaylleeagh, cha nel shen fondaghey dy vel yn inçhyn deiney jannoo ymmyd jeh’n corys cheddin. Er y laue elley, t’eh ry-akin dy vel eie oltscarree çhengey fo-ockle ayn dy cadjin my ta’n çhengey goll er screeu rere abbyrlhit. Foddee oo loayrt er "sheeanchoryssaghtys" screeu as lhaih neesht.
Caghlaaghyn ayns myn-heean-hasht rish y traa
Ny sheeanyn er lheh ta nyn vyn-heeanyn ayns çhengey, t’ad caghlaa rish y traa. Myr sampleyr, foddey er dy henney, va [f] as [v] nyn vo-heeanyn y vyn-heean cheddin, agh haink ad dy ve nyn myn-heeanyn hene. Ta caghlaaghyn çhengagh scanshoil myr shen goll er scrutaghey liorish çhengoaylleeaght shennaghyssagh.
Aase y vagher
Ayns Yn Çhenn Injey, ren y grammeyder Sanskrit Pāṇini (mysh 520-460 RC)Pāṇini resooney magh eieyn cosoylagh rish y vyn-ockle, myn-heean, as bun. Ta ny Shiva Sutras taishbyney corys noteyraght myn-heeanagh ayns kied kiare linnaghyn jeig yn Aṣṭādhyāyī. Va’n corys noteyraght cur lesh stiagh kuse dy ghossanyn myn-heeanyn as currym er lheh oc da jalloo-oaylleeaght Hanskrit. Hug y lioar ghrammeydys Sanskrit shoh cummaght baghtal er Ferdinand de Saussure, ayr co-yannooaght jeianagh, as olloo Sanskrit.
Ren y scoillar Polynnagh Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, as e studeyr Mikołaj Kruszewski, croo yn fockle phoneme (myn-heean) in 1876, as ga nagh vel monney enney orroo, t’ad gra dy row e obbyr toshiaght sheeanchoryssaghtys jeianagh. Ren eh obbyr er sheiltynys y vynsheean, as er kirkinys sheeanagh (dy ghra myr shen, jalloo-sheeanchoryssaghtys). Hug eh cummaght er Ferdinand de Saussure myrgeddin.
Ta obbyr yn Flah Nikolai Trubetzkoy clouit lurg e vaase, Principles of Phonology (1939), goit rish myr bun y Scoill sheeanchoryssaghtys Phraag. Ta’n Flah goit rish myr bun-ayr yalloo-sheeanchoryssaghtys, ga dy ren Baudouin de Courtenay cur ennym er roish, as va cummaght echey er Trubetzkov. Fer scanshoil elley ‘sy scoill, she Roman Jakobson, as eh fer jeh ny çhengeyderyn smoo ard-cheimagh y feedoo eash.
Ayns 1968, ren Noam Chomsky as Morris Halle soilshaghey magh The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), bun Çhengoaylleeaght ghientynagh. Rere’n baght shoh, ta tuarastyl sheeanchoryssagh nyn straihyn meeryn jeant jeh cowraghyn baghtal. Ta ny cowraghyn shoh taishbyney troyn fockley magh ny toiggal, t’ad veih possan soit cadjin, as ta towse jeesoil + ny – oc. Ta daa chorrym tuarastyl ayn ec y sloo: tuarastyl bunneydagh as tuarastyl sheeanagh mooie. Ta reillyn sheeancoryssagh reaghey jannoo fockley magh hene (y tuarastyl sheeanagh mooie) jeh tuarastyl bunneydagh. Ren SPE beg jeh’n shillab as hug eh trimmid er meeryn. Chammah’s shen, hug stiagh ny Gientynee jalloo-sheeanchoryssaghtys ayns sheeanchoryssaghtys.
Ta bun Sheeanchoryssaghtys Dooghyssagh screeuyn David Stampe ayns 1969 as 1979. Rere’n baght shoh, ta bun sheeanchoryssaghtys possan dy obbraghyn sheeanchoryssagh cadjin ta eddyr-obbraghey. Ayns dagh çhengey, ta kuse jeu bio as kuse jeu neuvio. Ayns ynnyd jeh bentyn rish meeryn, ta obbraghyn sheeancoryssagh bentyn rish cowraghyn baghtal çheusthie possanyn prosoidagh. Foddee ny possan ve cho beg as rheynn jeh shillab, ny cho mooar as slane raa. Ren Wolfgang U. Dressler cur lesh eieyn Sheeanchoryssaghtys Dooghyssagh dys jalloo-oaylleeaght, as cur bun er Jalloo-oaylleeaght Ghooghyssagh.
Ayns 1976 ren John Goldsmith cur er bun sheeanchoryssaghtys hene-veeragh. Er lesh, ayns ynnyd jeh obbraghey er straih meeryn ennagh, ta obbraghyn sheeanchoryssagh bentyn rish kuse dy straihyn troyn coheeynt er ymmodee corrymyn. Haink sheeanchoryssaghtys hene-veeragh dy ve Towse-oaylleeaght chowrey.
Ta bun Sheeanchoryssaght Reiltys yn eie dy vel ooilley çhengaghyn rere possan beg reillyn, agh t’ad reih parameteryn neuchasley. Dy ghra myr shen, ta’n troggal sheeanchoryssagh cheddin ec dagh çhengey, agh ta anchaslys beg ayn as eshyn freggyrt er son anchaslyssyn y ghlare mooie. T’ad gra dy vel ny reillyn neuvrisheydagh, ga dy vel parameteryn streeu ny keayrtyn. Ta’n sheiltynys shoh geabbey cur ry-cheilley eieyn sheiltynagh er troggalyn sheeanchoryssagh as co-oardrailagh. Ta oayllee scanshoil ‘sy vagher goaill stiagh Jonathan Kaye, Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, John Harris, as sleih elley.
Ayns 1991, ren Alan Prince as Paul Smolensky croo Sheiltynys Optimality. Rere y sheiltynys shoh, ta çhengey reih fockley magh share ‘ockle son dy chooilleeney rolley slattyn howse. Ta’n rolley rere scansh: foddee slat howse ny s’inshley goll er brishey son dy chooilleeney fer ny s’yrjey. Hug lhieu John McCarthy as Alan Prince yn eie shen dys jalloo-oaylleeaght, as ayns America Hwoaie, t’eh yn ard-sheiltynys sheeanchoryssagh. Ayns yn Reeriaght Unnaneyssit, ta Sheeanchoryssaght Reiltys ny smoo cadjin. Va cummaght mooar ec Sheeanchoryssaghtys Dooghyssagh er Sheiltynys Optimality. Ta’n jees jeu cur tastey da lhiettalyssyn er loayreyderyn as fockley magh myr y red smoo scanshoil ayns sheeanchoryssaghtys, ga dy vel ad loayrt er shen ayns aghtyn anchasley.
Variation in the English Indefinite Article: Art aitt taishbyney scansh sheeanchoryssaghtys (ayns ynnyd jeh co-oardrail as semantagh ny lomarcan) ayns oltscarrey çhengoaylleeagh.
Lioaryn
Bloomfield, Leonard. (1933). Language. New York: H. Holt and Company. (Lhieggan lhiasit jeh lioar Bloomfield 1914 An introduction to the study of language).
Chomsky, Noam; and Halle, Morris. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row.
Clements, George N. (1985). The geometry of phonological features. Phonology Yearbook, 2, 225-252.
Clements, George N.; and Samuel J. Keyser. (1983). CV phonology: A generative theory of the syllable. Linguistic inquiry monographs (No. 9). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53047-3.
de Lacy, Paul. (2007). The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84879-2.
D. A. Dinnsen (Ed.). (1979). Current approaches to phonological theory. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Goldsmith, John A. (1989). Autosegmental and metrical phonology: A new synthesis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
John Goldsmith (ed.), The Handbook of Phonological Theory. Blackwell.
Harris, Zellig. (1951). Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Hockett, Charles F. (1955). A manual of phonology. Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, memoirs II. Baltimore: Waverley Press.
Hooper, Joan B. (1976). An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York: Academic Press.
Jakobson, Roman. (1949). On the identification of phonemic entities. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague, 5, 205-213.
Jakobson, Roman; Fant, Gunnar; and Halle, Morris. (1952). Preliminaries to speech analysis: The distinctive features and their correlates. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kenstowicz, Michael. Phonology in generative grammar. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Ladefoged, Peter. (1982). A course in phonetics (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Martinet, André. (1949). Phonology as functional phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Martinet, André. (1955). Économie des changements phonétiques: Traité de phonologie diachronique. Berne: A. Francke S.A.
Napoli, Donna Jo (1996). Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
David Odden (2005). Introducing Phonology. Cambridge.
Pike, Kenneth. (1947). Phonemics: A technique for reducing languages to writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Sapir, Edward. (1925). Sound patterns in language. Language, 1, 37-51.
Sapir, Edward. (1933). La réalité psychologique des phonémes. Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique, 30, 247-265.
de Saussure, Ferdinand. (1916). Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: Payot.
Stampe, David. (1979). A dissertation on natural phonology. New York: Garland.
Swadesh, Morris. (1934). The phonemic principle. Language, 10, 117-129.
Trubetzkoy, Nikolai. (1939). Grundzüge der Phonologie. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 7.
Twaddell, William F. (1935). On defining the phoneme. Language monograph no. 16. Language.
