Planned contributions to "Politics of the United States"

Adding a new section about political representation

• Broadly, this section will discuss the inequalities associated with political representation, some of the fundamental problems that result from inequalities, and potentially a reference to descriptive and symbolic forms of political representation
• Potential title: "Concerns about political representation"

Race, ethnicity, and political representation

• This sub-section will focus on race and ethnicity, with a particular emphasis on the representation of African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans
• Factors behind a lack of equitable representation and the perspectives of members of these groups will be discussed
• A more detailed sub-section will discuss the role of gerrymandering

Gender and political representation

• This sub-section will focus on gender and political representation
• It will discuss the underrepresentation of women in elected office, as well as the perspectives of women toward voting for male and female candidates

LGBTQ representation

• This sub-section will focus on LGBTQ political representation
• It will detail the influence of the growing number of openly LGBTQ representatives, as well as the impact of those representatives for members of the community

Sources

BERNSTEIN, ELIZABETH, and JANET R JAKOBSEN. "Sex, Secularism and Religious Influence in US Politics." Third World Quarterly 31, no. 6 (2010): 1023-039. Accessed April 11, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27896595.

Dolan, Kathleen, and Michael Hansen. “Blaming Women or Blaming the System? Public Perceptions of Women's Underrepresentation in Elected Office.” Political Research Quarterly, vol. 71, no. 3, 2018, pp. 668–680. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/45106690. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

EDICK, COLE. "Relics of Colonialism: Overseas Territories Across the Globe." Harvard International Review 37, no. 1 (2015): 11-12. Accessed April 10, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43746158.

Ellis, William Curtis, and Walter Clark Wilson. “Minority Chairs and Congressional Attention to Minority Issues: The Effect of Descriptive Representation in Positions of Institutional Power.” Social Science Quarterly, vol. 94, no. 5, 2013, pp. 1207–1221., www.jstor.org/stable/42864138. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

English, Ashley, et al. “Who Represents Me? Race, Gender, Partisan Congruence, and Representational Alternatives in a Polarized America.” Political Research Quarterly, vol. 72, no. 4, 2019, pp. 785–804. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/45223003. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Fairbanks, David. "Religious Forces and "Morality" Policies in the American States." The Western Political Quarterly 30, no. 3 (1977): 411-17. Accessed April 10, 2021. doi:10.2307/447941.

Guthunz, Ute. "Beyond Decolonization and Beyond Statehood? Puerto Rico's Political Development in Association with the United States." Iberoamericana (1977-2000) 21, no. 3/4 (67/68) (1997): 42-55. Accessed April 10, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41671654.

Haider-Markel, Donald P. “Representation and Backlash: The Positive and Negative Influence of Descriptive Representation.” Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 1, 2007, pp. 107–133. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40263412. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Jean Reith Schroedel, and Artour Aslanian. “A Case Study of Descriptive Representation: The Experience of Native American Elected Officials in South Dakota.” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 41, no. 3, 2017, pp. 250–286. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5250/amerindiquar.41.3.0250. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Jeong, Hoi Ok. “Minority Policies and Political Participation Among Latinos: Exploring Latinos' Response to Substantive Representation.” Social Science Quarterly, vol. 94, no. 5, 2013, pp. 1245–1260., www.jstor.org/stable/42864140. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Kömives, Lisa M. "Enfranchising a Discrete and Insular Minority: Extending Federal Voting Rights to American Citizens Living in United States Territories." The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 36, no. 1 (2004): 115-38. Accessed April 10, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40176588.

Sanbonmatsu, Kira. “Women’s Underrepresentation in the U.S. Congress.” Daedalus, vol. 149, no. 1, 2020, pp. 40–55. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/48563031. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Shah, Paru. “It Takes a Black Candidate: A Supply-Side Theory of Minority Representation.” Political Research Quarterly, vol. 67, no. 2, 2014, pp. 266–279. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24371782. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

SNELL, PAUL. “Equality in the House: The Congressional LGBT Equality Caucus and the Substantive Representation of LGBTQ Interests.” LGBTQ Politics: A Critical Reader, edited by Marla Brettschneider et al., NYU Press, New York, 2017, pp. 309–333. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1pwt8jh.23. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Wallace, Sophia J. “Examining Latino Support for Descriptive Representation: The Role of Identity and Discrimination.” Social Science Quarterly, vol. 95, no. 2, 2014, pp. 311–327. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26612166. Accessed 10 Feb. 2021.

Sandbox for drafts: User:Bgreaves18/New sandbox political representation.

Planned contributions to "Educational inequality in the United States"

Group roles

• Working alongside three other people, this article will be both restructured and greatly improved. Though my particular areas of focus are related to school discipline, the other members of my groups will each be contributing to a different section of the article.

Relocate the “Discipline gap” section and add new information

• Relocating and turning this section into a subsection under the “Educational Disparities” section will provide greater context, as well as reflect upon my group’s overall structural changes to the article.

• Within the discipline gap subsection, I plan on providing new information—all of which is from academic sources—about the discipline gap in the following areas:
  • Causes of disparities in the distribution of school punishments, such as implicit bias among teachers, perceptions of minority students, and the evolution of policies themselves;
  • The disciplinary practices that most embody these disparities, including suspensions, expulsions, and juvenile arrests;
  • And the consequences/impacts that disciplinary practices have on minority students, such as dropping out of high school, negative effects on grades, and increased likelihood of entering the criminal justice system.

Relocating the “Prison pipeline” section and add new information

• Relocating and turning this section into a subsection under the “Educational Disparities” section will provide greater context, similar to the rationale for moving the “Discipline Gap” section.

• Within the “Prison Pipeline” subsection, I plan on providing information—all of which is from academic sources—that expands on what is already listed, specifically by including data and more concrete examples. I will also strengthen the connection between this section and the previous one about school discipline, in order to provide a clearer picture of how these educational disparities are related.

Adding to the future “Potential solutions” section

• In this section, I plan on creating a subsection, titled “Discipline Reform,” that provides information—all of which is from academic sources—about some of the reforms to school discipline that researchers have proposed.

This is a user sandbox of Bgreaves18. You can use it for testing or practicing edits. This is not the sandbox where you should draft your assigned article for a dashboard.wikiedu.org course. To find the right sandbox for your assignment, visit your Dashboard course page and follow the Sandbox Draft link for your assigned article in the My Articles section. Get Help

Annotated bibliography for sources

ARUM, RICHARD, E. CHRISTINE BAKER-SMITH, and JESSICA LIPSCHULTZ. "A Sociology of School Discipline." In Education and Society: An Introduction to Key Issues in the Sociology of Education, edited by Domina Thurston, Gibbs Benjamin G., Nunn Lisa, and Penner Andrew, 208-21. Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2019. Accessed October 22, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvpb3wn0.18.

• This source provides information about restorative justice practices and the role of positive school climates about discipline.
• This source will be used in the "Potential Solutions" section.

Day-Vines, Norma L., and Veronica Terriquez. "A Strengths-Based Approach to Promoting Prosocial Behavior Among African American and Latino Students." Professional School Counseling 12, no. 2 (2008): 170-75. Accessed October 22, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23801074.

• This source provides information about discipline reform instituted by community advocates, school officials, and families.
• This source will be used in the "Potential Solutions" section.

Delale-O’Connor, Lori Ann, Adam J. Alvarez, Ira E. Murray, and IV, H. Richard Milner. 2017. “Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Classroom Management, and the Cradle-to-Prison Pipeline.” Theory Into Practice 56 (3): 178–86. doi:10.1080/00405841.2017.1336038.

• This source provides information about how teachers can contribute to school discipline disparities, as well as how these disparities subsequently contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section and the "Prison Pipeline" section.

Edwards, Linsey. "Homogeneity and Inequality: School Discipline Inequality and the Role of Racial Composition." Social Forces 95, no. 1 (2016): 55-75. Accessed September 11, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24754265.

• This source details the different categories/kinds of school discipline and specific statistics about how these disciplinary areas impact African American students.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section.

Eitle, Tamela McNulty, and David James Eitle. "Inequality, Segregation, and the Overrepresentation of African Americans in School Suspensions." Sociological Perspectives 47, no. 3 (2004): 269-87. Accessed September 11, 2020. doi:10.1525/sop.2004.47.3.269.

• This source discusses how the level of segregation in schools influences the suspension rates of African American students.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section.

ESCHMANN, ROB, and CHARLES M. PAYNE. "Hidden in Plain Sight: Rethinking Race in Education." In Education and Society: An Introduction to Key Issues in the Sociology of Education, edited by Domina Thurston, Gibbs Benjamin G., Nunn Lisa, and Penner Andrew, 54-65. Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2019. Accessed September 11, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvpb3wn0.8.

• This source focuses on how disciplinary infractions perpetrated by minority students are perceived, as well as how the subsequent punishments exist in relation to the punishments faced by white students.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section.

Gregory, Anne, and Dewey Cornell. ""Tolerating" Adolescent Needs: Moving Beyond Zero Tolerance Policies in High School." Theory Into Practice 48, no. 2 (2009): 106-13. Accessed October 22, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40344600.

• This source discusses the relationships between students and both teachers and school in general, as well as the potential risks of zero-tolerance policies.
• This source will be used in the "Potential Solutions" section.

Gregory, Anne, Russell J. Skiba, and Pedro A. Noguera. "The Achievement Gap and the Discipline Gap: Two Sides of the Same Coin?" Educational Researcher 39, no. 1 (2010): 59-68. Accessed September 11, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27764554.

• In this source, aggregate data related to the disciplinary inequalities experienced by black students is provided, as well as some data about the experiences of other minorities in schools. The ways by which students are selected for discipline is also discussed; additionally, some potential solutions to these issues are outlined.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section and the "Potential Solutions" section.

Hirschfield, Paul. "Another Way Out: The Impact of Juvenile Arrests on High School Dropout." Sociology of Education 82, no. 4 (2009): 368-93. Accessed September 11, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40376057.

• This source describes the impact of dropping out of school on students, as well as the role and impact of juvenile arrests in the education system.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section and the "Prison Pipeline" section.

Kocon, Amanda. 2018. “Sparking a School Discipline Revolution.” Education Digest 83 (7): 16–21. https://search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.rice.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=127865164&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

• In this source, additional information is provided about school arrests, and Kocon also mentions potential solutions to school disciplinary issues.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section, the "Prison Pipeline" section, and the "Potential Solutions" section.

Marable, Manning. "Incarceration vs. Education: Reproducing Racism and Poverty in America." Race, Poverty & the Environment 15, no. 2 (2008): 59-61. Accessed October 22, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41554623.

• This source discusses, among other things, the funding patterns of states in relation to education and correctional facilities.
• This source will be used in the "Prison Pipeline" section.

Moody, Myles. "From Under-Diagnoses to Over-Representation: Black Children, ADHD, and the School-To-Prison Pipeline." Journal of African American Studies 20, no. 2 (2016): 152-63. Accessed September 11, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44508173.

• In this source, "no-tolerance" policies--a particularly damaging form of school discipline--is discussed, in addition to some of the root causes of disciplinary inequality.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section and the "Prison Pipeline" section.

Nicholas P. Triplett, Ayana Allen, and Chance W. Lewis. "Zero Tolerance, School Shootings, and the Post-Brown Quest for Equity in Discipline Policy: An Examination of How Urban Minorities Are Punished for White Suburban Violence." The Journal of Negro Education 83, no. 3 (2014): 352-70. Accessed September 11, 2020. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.83.3.0352.

• In this source, suspensions, along with other forms of "exclusionary" discipline, are explained through the context of their impact on a student's education.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section and the "Prison Pipeline" section.

Noguera, Pedro A. "Schools, Prisons, and Social Implications of Punishment: Rethinking Disciplinary Practices." Theory Into Practice 42, no. 4 (2003): 341-50. Accessed September 11, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1477398.

• This source describes both the causes of disciplinary infractions in schools and the consequences of disparities in school discipline, especially as it relates to the education of other students.
• This source will be used in the "Discipline Gap" section and the "Prison Pipeline" section.

Steen, Sam, and Pedro A. Noguera. "A Broader and Bolder Approach to School Reform: Expanded Partnership Roles for School Counselors." Professional School Counseling 14, no. 1 (2010): 42-52. Accessed October 22, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42732748.

• This source discusses increasing potential involvement by parents in school decisions, as well as the benefits of moving away from a discipline-centered focus in schools.
• This source will be used in the "Potential Solutions" section.