Wilayah Xiongnu pada abad ke-2 SM (sebelum Perang Han–Xiongnu pada 133 SM – 89 TM): ia merangkumi Mongolia, timur Kazakhstan, timur Kyrgyzstan, selatan Siberia, dan bahagian-bahagian utara China seperti barat Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia Dalam dan Gansu.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]

Ibu negara

Otuken^[5]^[6] (sekitar Pergunungan Khangai masa kini, Arkhangai)^[7]
Longcheng (ibu kota kemudian)^[8]

Bahasa yang umum digunakan

pelbagai

Agama

Shamanisme, Tengrisme, Buddhisme^[9]

Kerajaan

Puak konfederasi

Chanyu

• 220 - 209 SM

Touman

• 209 - 174 SM

Modu

• 174 - 161 SM

Laoshang

• 46 TM

Wudadihou

Sejarah

• Didirikan

Abad ke-3 SM

• Dibubarkan

abad ke-1 Masihi

Didahului oleh

Diganti oleh

	Budaya Kubur Batu
	Orang Donghu
	Yuezhi
	Saka
	Budaya Ordos

Dinasti Han
Negeri Xianbei
Kekhanan Rouran
Tokharia
Kekhanan Turkik Pertama

Xiongnu

Bahasa Cina

匈奴

Transkripsi
Bahasa Mandarin Baku
Hanyu Pinyin	Xiōngnú
Bopomofo	ㄒㄩㄥㄋㄨˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh	Shiongnu
Wade–Giles	Hsiung¹-nu²
Tongyong Pinyin	Syong-nú
IPA	[ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]
Bahasa Yue: Bahasa Kantonis
Perumian Yale	Hūng-nòuh
Jyutping	Hung¹-nou⁴
IPA	Templat:IPAc-yue
Bahasa Min Selatan
Tâi-lô	Hing-lôo
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)	*qʰoŋ.nˤa
Zhengzhang	qʰoŋ.na:^[10]^[11]

Xiongnu (Bahasa Cina: 匈奴code: zh is deprecated ; pinyin: Xiōngnú,^[12] [ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]; Jawi: ‏شيوڠنو‎code: ms is deprecated ‎) ialah sebuah gabungan puak^[13] orang nomad yang, menurut sumber Cina purba, dahulu tinggal di Tataran Eurasia timur dari abad ke-3 SM hingga akhir abad ke-1 Masihi. Empayar Xiongnu diasaskan oleh pemimpin tertinggi Modu Chanyu selepas tahun 209 SM.

Selepas menggulingkan penguasa mereka sebelum ini,^[14] orang Yuezhi, Xiongnu menjadi kuasa dominan di tataran Asia Timur, berpusat di Penara Mongolia. Orang Xiongnu juga aktif di kawasan-kawasan yang kini sebahagian daripada Siberia, Mongolia Dalam, Gansu dan Xinjiang. Hubungan dengan jiran mereka di tenggara, dinasti-dinasti Cina, adalah kompleks—kadangkala aman, berperang, dan penaklukan. Akhirnya, Xiongnu dikalahkan oleh dinasti Han dalam konflik selama berabad-abad, yang membawa kepada konfederasi mereka berpecah kepada dua, serta penempatan semula secara paksa begitu ramai orang Xiongnu dalam sempadan Han. Semasa era Enam Belas Kerajaan, sebagai salah satu daripada "Lima Bangsa Gasar", mereka mengasaskan negeri-negeri dinasti Han-Zhao, Liang Utara dan Hu Xia di utara China.

Cubaan untuk mengaitkan Xiongnu dengan bangsa Saka dan Sarmatia yang berdekatan pernah menjadi topik berkontroversi. Walau bagaimanapun, bidang arkeogenetik telah mengesahkan mereka rnah inberteraksi dengan Xiorang ongnu, dan juga hubungan mereka dengan Hun .Identiti teras etnik Xiongnu telah menjadi subjek hipelbagai potesis, kerana hanya beberapa perkataan, terutamanya gelaran dan nama peribadi, masih terpelihara dalam sumber-sumber Cina. Nama Xiongnu mungkin serumpun dengan nama Hun dan/atau Huna,^[15]^[16]^[17] tetapi ini dipertikaikan.^[18]^[19] Antara hubungannya dengan bahasa lain—semuanya juga berkontroversi—yang dicadangkan oleh pakar termasuk Turkik,^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Iran,^[26]^[27]^[28] Mongolik,^[29] Ural,^[30] Yenisei,^[18]^[31]^[32]^[33] atau pelbagai etnik.^[34]

Rujukan

[sunting | sunting sumber]

Petikan

[sunting | sunting sumber]

^ Coatsworth, John; Cole, Juan; Hanagan, Michael P.; Perdue, Peter C.; Tilly, Charles; Tilly, Louise (16 Mac 2015). Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History. Cambridge University Press. m/s. 138. ISBN 978-1-316-29777-3.
^ Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. 2002. m/s. 51. ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0.
^ Fauve, Jeroen (2021). The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies. BoD – Books on Demand. m/s. 403. ISBN 978-3-8382-1518-1.
^ Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (19 November 2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions (dalam bahasa Inggeris). Cambridge University Press. m/s. 245, Fig 12.3. ISBN 978-1-139-78938-7.
^ "ASYA HUN DEVLETİ (BÜYÜK HUN İMPARATORLUĞU) (M.Ö. 220 – M.S.216 ) — Dijital Hoca".
^ "Türklerin tarihî başkenti: Ötüken - Avrasya'dan - Haber".
^ Feng, Li (30 Disember 2013). Early China: A Social and Cultural History (dalam bahasa Inggeris). Cambridge University Press. m/s. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-89552-1.
^ Yü, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. m/s. 384. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
^ Shufen, Liu (2002). "Ethnicity and the Suppression of Buddhism in Fifth-century North China: The Background and Significance of the Gaiwu Rebellion". Asia Major. 15 (1): 1–21. ISSN 0004-4482. JSTOR 41649858.
^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字 [匈 - The 13890th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.
^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字 [奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網code: zh is deprecated ] (dalam bahasa Cina). Rearranged by BYVoid.
^ Gökalp, Ziya (2020). Türk Medeniyeti Tarihi. ISBN 9786054369461 – melalui Google Books.
^ "Xiongnu People". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 11 March 2020. Dicapai pada 25 July 2015.
^ Chase-Dunn, C.; Anderson, E. (18 February 2005). The Historical Evolution of World-Systems (dalam bahasa Inggeris). Springer. m/s. 36-37. ISBN 978-1-4039-8052-6.
^ Grousset 1970.
^ Pulleyblank 2000.
^ Schuessler 2014.
^ ^a ^b Beckwith 2009.
^ "Xiongnu". Encyclopedia Iranica online. 15 November 2006. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 4 January 2012.
^ Hucker 1975.
^ Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (10 May 2020). "Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.18. PMC 7612788. The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise)
^ Robbeets, Martine; Bouckaert, Remco (1 July 2018). "Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family". Journal of Language Evolution. 3 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1093/jole/lzy007. ISSN 2058-4571.
^ "Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties", Chinese Architecture, Princeton University Press: 72–103, 14 May 2019, doi:10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11, dicapai pada 1 April 2023Larousse, Éditions. "Turcs ou Turks - LAROUSSE". www.larousse.fr (dalam bahasa Perancis). Dicapai pada 1 April 2023.
^ Book of Zhou, vol. 50.
^ Sims-Williams 2004.Pritsak 1959.
^ Harmatta 1994: "Puak-puak diraja dan raja-raja mereka (shan-yü) memakai nama-nama Iran dan semua perkataan Hsiung-nu yang dicatat oleh orang Cina boleh dikaitan datang daripada bahasa Iran jenis Saka. Oleh itu, jelas bahawa majoriti suku Hsiung-nu bercakap dalam bahasa Iran Timur."
^ Bailey 1985.
^ Jankowski 2006.
^ "Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia" (PDF). Oriental Studies. Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies. 49: 25, 27. February 2011. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 29 July 2013.
^ Di Cosmo 2004.
^ Adas 2001.
^ Vovin, Alexander (2000). "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (1): 87–104. JSTOR 41928223.
^ 高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). "Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán" 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源 [Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies]. Central Asiatic Journal. 60 (1–2): 51–58. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051.
^ Geng 2005.

Sumber

[sunting | sunting sumber]

Sumber utama

Ban Gu et al., Kitab Han, terut. jld. 94, bahagian 1, bahagian 2 .
Fan Ye et al., Book of the Later Han, terut. jld. 89 .
Sima Qian et al., Rekod Ahli Sejarah Besar, terut. jld. 110 .

Sumber lain dirujuk

Adas, Michael (2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History. American Historical Association/Temple University Press.
Bailey, Harold W. (1985). Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts, VII. Cambridge University Press. JSTOR 312539. Dicapai pada 30 May 2015.
Barfield, Thomas J. (1989). The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, 221 BC to AD 1757. Basil Blackwell.
Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2. Dicapai pada 30 May 2015.
Bentley, Jerry (1993). Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bunker, Emma C. (2002). Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other Notable New York Collections. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300096880. OCLC 819761397 – melalui Internet Archive. ("Via Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 3 December 2013. Dicapai pada 27 December 2021.)
Christian, David (1998). A history of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol. 1: Inner Eurasia from prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Blackwell.
Damgaard, P. B.; dll. (9 May 2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes". Nature. Nature Research. 557 (7705): 369–373. Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2. hdl:1887/3202709. PMID 29743675. S2CID 13670282. Dicapai pada 11 April 2020.
Demattè, Paola (2006). "Writing the Landscape: Petroglyphs of Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Province (China)". Dalam David L. Peterson; dll. (penyunting). Beyond the steppe and the sown: proceedings of the 2002 University of Chicago Conference on Eurasian Archaeology. Colloquia Pontica: series on the archaeology and ancient history of the Black Sea area. 13. Brill. m/s. 300–313. (Proceedings of the First International Conference of Eurasian Archaeology, University of Chicago, 3–4 May 2002.)
Di Cosmo, Nicola (1999). "The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China". Dalam Michael Loewe dan Edward Shaughnessy (penyunting). The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge University Press.
Di Cosmo, Nicola (2002). Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. (original edition)
Di Cosmo, Nicola (2004). Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. (First paperback edition)
Fairbank, J.K.; Têng, S.Y. (1941). "On the Ch'ing Tributary System". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 6 (2): 135–246. doi:10.2307/2718006. JSTOR 2718006.
Geng, Shimin [耿世民] (2005). 阿尔泰共同语、匈奴语探讨 [Perbincangan tentang Bahasa Biasa Altai dan Bahasa Xiongnu]. Yu Yan Yu Fan Yi 语言与翻译（汉文版） [Language and Translation] (2). ISSN 1001-0823. OCLC 123501525. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 25 February 2012.
Golden, Peter B. (1992). "Chapter VI – The Uyğur Qağante (742–840)". An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East. O. Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-03274-2.
Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
Hall, Mark & Minyaev, Sergey. Chemical Analyses of Xiong-nu Pottery: A Preliminary Study of Exchange and Trade on the Inner Asian Steppes. In: Journal of Archaeological Science (2002) 29, pp. 135–144
Harmatta, János (1 January 1994). "Conclusion". Dalam Harmatta, János (penyunting). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250. UNESCO. m/s. 485–492. ISBN 978-9231028465. Dicapai pada 29 May 2015.
Harmatta, János (1992). "The Emergence of the Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages". Dalam Dani, A. H.; Masson, V. M. (penyunting). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B. C. (PDF). UNESCO. m/s. 346–370. ISBN 978-92-3-102719-2. Dicapai pada 29 May 2015.
Henning, W. B. (1948). "The date of the Sogdian ancient letters". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 12 (3–4): 601–615. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00083178. JSTOR 608717. S2CID 161867825.
Hucker, Charles O. (1975). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2353-2. Bangsa proto-Turki Hsiung-nu kini dicabar oleh kumpulan asing lain - proto-Tibet, puak proto-Mongolia yang dipanggil Hsien-pi, dan kaum proto-Turki yang berasingan yang dipanggil To-pa (Toba).
Ishjamts, N. (1996). "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia". Dalam Janos Harmatta; dll. (penyunting). History of civilizations of Central Asia. Volume 2: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 bc to ad 250. UNESCO. m/s. 151–170. ISBN 92-3-102846-4. OCLC 928730707.
Jankowski, Henryk (2006). Historical-Etymological Dictionary of Pre-Russian Habitation Names of the Crimea. Handbuch der Orientalistik [HdO], 8: Central Asia; 15. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15433-9.
Keyser-Tracqui, Christine; dll. (July 2003). "Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of a 2,000-Year-Old Necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia". American Journal of Human Genetics. Cell Press. 73 (2): 247–260. doi:10.1086/377005. PMC 1180365. PMID 12858290.
Keyser-Tracqui, Christine; dll. (Oktober 2006). "Population origins in Mongolia: genetic structure analysis of ancient and modern DNA". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. American Association of Physical Anthropologists. 131 (2): 272–281. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20429. PMID 16596591.
Kim, Kijeong; dll. (July 2010). "A western Eurasian male is found in 2000-year-old elite Xiongnu cemetery in Northeast Mongolia". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. American Association of Physical Anthropologists. 142 (3): 429–440. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21242. PMID 20091844.
Loewe, Michael (1974). "The campaigns of Han Wu-ti". Dalam Kierman, Frank A. Jr.; Fairbank, John K. (penyunting). Chinese ways in warfare. Harvard Univ. Press.
Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (1973). The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture (ed. 1st). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01596-8. Dicapai pada 18 February 2015. Internet Archive
Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London: Thames & Hudson.
Neparáczki, Endre; dll. (12 November 2019). "Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin". Scientific Reports. Nature Research. 9 (16569): 16569. Bibcode:2019NatSR...916569N. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5. PMC 6851379. PMID 31719606.
Pritsak, O. (1959). "XUN Der Volksname der Hsiung-nu". Central Asiatic Journal (dalam bahasa Jerman). 5: 27–34.
Psarras, Sophia-Karin (2003). "Han and Xiongnu: A Reexamination of Cultural and Political Relations". Monumenta Serica. 51: 55–236. doi:10.1080/02549948.2003.11731391. JSTOR 40727370. S2CID 156676644.
Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1994). "Ji Hu: Indigenous Inhabitants of Shaanbei and Western Shanxi". Opuscula Altaica: Essays Presented in Honor of Henry Schwarz. 19: 499–531.
Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000). "Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity" (PDF). Early China. 25 (25): 1–27. doi:10.1017/S0362502800004259. S2CID 162159081. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 18 November 2017. Dicapai pada 1 December 2017.
Schuessler, Axel (2014). "Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words" (PDF). Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica (53). Diarkibkan daripada yang asal (PDF) pada 7 June 2021. Dicapai pada 27 December 2021.
Sims-Williams, Nicholas (2004). "The Sogdian ancient letters. Letters 1, 2, 3, and 5 translated into English".
State Hermitage Museum (2007). "Prehistoric Art - Early Nomads of the Altaic Region". The Hermitage Museum. Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 22 June 2007. Dicapai pada 31 July 2007.
Whitehouse, Ruth, penyunting (2016). Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology. Macmillan Education. ISBN 978-1349075898.^{[pautan mati kekal]}
Wink, A. (2002). Al-Hind: making of the Indo-Islamic World. Brill. ISBN 0-391-04174-6.
Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars with the Xiongnu: A translation from Zizhi tongjian. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4490-0604-4. AuthorHouse.

Bacaan lanjut

[sunting | sunting sumber]

Davydova, Anthonina. The Ivolga archaeological complex. Part 1. The Ivolga fortress. Dalam: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, jil. 1. St Petersburg, 1995.
Davydova, Anthonina. The Ivolga archaeological complex. Part 2. The Ivolga cemetery. Dalam: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, jil. 2. St Petersburg, 1996.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Davydova, Anthonina & Minyaev Sergey. The complex of archaeological sites near Dureny village. Dalam: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, jil. 5. St Petersburg, 2003.
Davydova, Anthonina & Minyaev Sergey. The Xiongnu Decorative bronzes. Dalam: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, jil. 6. St Petersburg, 2003.
(dalam bahasa Hungary) Helimski, Eugen. "A szamojéd népek vázlatos története" (Sejarah Singkat Orang Samoyed). Dalam: The History of the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic Peoples. 2000, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Kiuner (Kjuner, Küner) [Кюнер], N.V. 1961. Китайские известия о народах Южной Сибири, Центральной Азии и Дальнего Востока (Catatan Cina tentang bangsa-bangsa Siberia Selatan, Asia Tengah dan Timur Jauh). Moscow.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Klyashtorny S.G. [Кляшторный С.Г.] 1964. Древнетюркские рунические памятники как источник по истории Средней Азии. (Ancient Türkic runiform monuments as a source for the history of Central Asia). Moscow: Nauka.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Kradin , Nikolay. 2002. "Hun Empire". Acad. eds. ke-2, dikemaskini dan ditambah., Moscow: Logos, ISBN 5-94010-124-0
Kradin, Nikolay. 2005. Social and Economic Structure of the Xiongnu of the Trans-Baikal Region. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia, No 1 (21), m/s 79–86.
Kradin, Nikolay. 2012. New Approaches and Challenges for the Xiongnu Studies. Dalam: Xiongnu and its eastward Neighbours. Seoul, m/s 35–51.
(dalam bahasa Jerman) Liu Mau-tsai. 1958. Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost-Türken (T'u-küe). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Minyaev, Sergey. On the origin of the Xiongnu // Bulletin of International association for the study of the culture of Central Asia, UNESCO. Moscow, 1985, No. 9.
Minyaev, Sergey. News of Xiongnu Archaeology // Das Altertum, jil. 35. Berlin, 1989.
Minyaev, Sergey. "Niche Grave Burials of the Xiong-nu Period in Central Asia", Information Bulletin, Inter-national Association for the Cultures of Central Asia 17 (1990): 91–99.
Minyaev, Sergey. The excavation of Xiongnu Sites in the Buryatia Republic// Orientations, jil. 26, n. 10, Hong Kong, November 1995.
Minyaev, Sergey. Les Xiongnu// Dossiers d' archaeologie, # 212. Paris 1996.
Minyaev, Sergey. Archaeologie des Xiongnu en Russie: nouvelles decouvertes et quelques Problemes. Dalam: Arts Asiatiques, tome 51, Paris, 1996.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Minyaev, Sergey. Derestuj cemetery. Dalam: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, jil. 3. St-Petersburg, 1998.
Minyaev, Sergey. The origins of the "Geometric Style" in Hsiungnu art // BAR International series 890. London, 2000.
Minyaev, Sergey. Art and archeology of the Xiongnu: new discoveries in Russia. Dalam: Circle of Iner Asia Art, Newsletter, Issue 14, December 2001, hlm. 3–9
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Minyaev, Sergey. The Xiongnu cultural complex: location and chronology. Dalam: Ancient and Middle Age History of Eastern Asia. Vladivostok, 2001, hlm. 295–305.
Miniaev, Sergey & Elikhina, Julia. On the chronology of the Noyon Uul barrows. The Silk Road 7 (2009): 21–30.
Minyaev, Sergey & Sakharovskaja, Lidya. Investigation of a Xiongnu Royal Tomb in the Tsaraam valley, part 1. Dalam: Newsletters of the Silk Road Foundation, jil. 4, no.1, 2006.
Minyaev, Sergey & Sakharovskaja, Lidya. Investigation of a Xiongnu Royal Tomb in the Tsaraam valley, part 2. Dalam: Newsletters of the Silk Road Foundation, jil. 5, no.1, 2007.
Minyaev, Sergey & Smolarsky Phillipe. Art of the Steppes. Brussels, Foundation Richard Liu, 2002.
(dalam bahasa Hungary) Obrusánszky, Borbála. August 2009. Tongwancheng, city of the southern Huns. Transoxiana, August 2009, 14. ISSN 1666-7050.
(dalam bahasa Perancis) Petkovski, Elizabet. 2006. Polymorphismes ponctuels de séquence et identification génétique: étude par spectrométrie de masse MALDI-TOF. Strasbourg: Université Louis Pasteur. Dissertation
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Potapov, L.P. 1969. Этнический состав и происхождение алтайцев Archived 20 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Etnicheskii sostav i proiskhozhdenie altaitsev, Ethnic composition and origins of the Altaians). Leningrad: Nauka. Facsimile in Microsoft Word format.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Potapov, L.P. [Потапов, Л.П.] 1966. Этнионим Теле и Алтайцы. Тюркологический сборник (The ethnonym "Tele" and the Altaians. Turcologica): 233–240. Moscow: Nauka.
(dalam bahasa Rusia) Talko-Gryntsevich, Julian. 1999. Paleo-Ethnology of Trans-Baikal area. Dalam: Archaeological sites of the Xiongnu, jil. 4. St Petersburg.
Taskin V.S. [Таскин В.С.]. 1984. Материалы по истории древних кочевых народов группы Дунху (Bahan mengenai sejarah orang nomad purba kumpulan Dunhu). Moscow.
Brosseder, Ursula, and Bryan Miller. Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia. Bonn: Freiburger Graphische Betriebe- Freiburg, 2011.
Csányi, B.; et al. (July 2008). "Y-Chromosome Analysis of Ancient Hungarian and Two Modern Hungarian-Speaking Populations from the Carpathian Basin". Annals of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 519–534. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2008.00440.x. PMID 18373723. S2CID 13217908. Retrieved 2022-04-06.
Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. (Terutamanya m/s 69–74)
Houle, J. and L.G. Broderick (2011) "Settlement Patterns and Domestic Economy of the Xiongnu in Khanui Valley, Mongolia", 137–152. In Xiongnu Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in Inner Asia.
Miller, Bryan K. (2014). "Xiongnu "Kings" and the Political Order of the Steppe Empire". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 57 (1): 1–43. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341340.
Toh, Hoong Teik (2005). "The -yu Ending in Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Gaoju Onomastica" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 146.
Touchette, Nancy (25 July 2003). "Ancient DNA Tells Tales from the Grave". Genome News Network. Archived from the original on 2006-05-16.
Vaissière (2005). "Huns et Xiongnu". Central Asiatic Journal (in French). 49 (1): 3–26.
Yap, Joseph P, (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu. ISBN 978-1792829154
Zhang, Bibo; Dong, Guoyao (2001). 中国古代北方民族文化史 [Cultural History of Ancient Northern Ethnic Groups in China]. Harbin: Heilongjiang People's Press. ISBN <bdi>978-7-207-03325-3</bdi>.