Heracleum mantegazzianum | |
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Klasifikasi ilmiah | |
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Genus: | Heracleum
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Spesies: | H. mantegazzianum
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Nama binomial | |
Heracleum mantegazzianum |
Heracleum mantegazzianum, atau disebut dengan hogweed raksasa,[1][2][3][4] merupakan tanaman herba abadi monokarpik di famili Apiaceae. H. mantegazzianum juga disebut bunga roda,[2][3][4] peterseli sapi raksasa,[5] lobak sapi raksasa,[6] atau hogsbane. Di Selandia Baru, terkadang dipanggil lobak liar (tidak membingungkan Pastinaca sativa) atau rhubarb liar.[3]
Hogweed raksasa adalah tanaman asli dari daerah Kaukasus di Eurasia. Ini telah di introduksi Britania sebagai tanaman ornamental di Abad ke-19, Dan tersebar ke daerah Eropa Barat, Amerika Serikat dan Kanada.[1] Dari relativitas dekat, hogweed Sosnowsky and hogweed Persia, mempunyai penyebaran serupa dari beberapa bagian dari Eropa.
Getah dari hogweed raksasa adalah fototoksik dan menyebabkan fitofotodermatitis di manusia, menyebabkan lepuh dan luka. Reaksi serius ini disebabkan furanokumarin turunan dari daun, akar, batang, bunga, dan biji tanaman ini. Akibatnya, dijadikan tanaman liar beracun di berbagai yuridiksi.[1]
Nama spesies mantegazzianum berasal dari Paolo Mantegazza (1831–1910), Penjelajah Italia dan antropolog.[7]
Hogweed raksasa biasanya tumbuh setinggi 2 hingga 5 m (6 ft 7 in hingga 16 ft 5 in).[1] Di bawah kondisi ideal, Sebuah tanaman bisa mencapai tinggi 55 m (180 ft 5 in).[8][9] Daunnya tertakuk dan berlubang dalam. Sebuah tanaman dewasa mempunyai daun besar, dengan lebar 1–15 m (3 ft 3 in – 49 ft 3 in)[10] dan sebuah bayak, tangkai berwarna hijau dengan bercak ungu kemerahan tua yang luas dan bulu putih kasar yang menonjol, terutama di pangkal tangkai daun. Batang berongga dan bergerigi berdiameter 3–8 cm (1,2–3,1 in), terkadang mencapai diameter 10 cm (3,9 in), dan dapat tumbuh setinggi lebih dari 4 m (13 ft), dan bisa tumbuh lebih dari tinggi . Bintik merah tua di tangkai dan setiapnya dipenuhi rambut tunggal.[11] Perbungaan payung, disebut gabungan umbel, kemungkinan 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) dengan diameter di bagian atasnya yang rata. Bunga berwarna putih atau putih kehijauan dan mungkin secara radial simetrikal atau sangat simetri bilateral (zigomorfik).[9] Buahnya skizokarp, memproduksi biji dalam keadaan kering, teratakan, pasangan oval.[9] Setiap biji berpanjang 1 cm (1⁄2 in), dengan dasar yang membulat lebar dan punggung tepi yang lebar, berwarna cokelat dengan garis-garis cokelat (disebut tabung minyak) memanjang ¾ dari panjang biji.
Siklus hidup tanaman ini terbagi menjadi empat:[12]
Saat berapa tahun pertama berkembang, the leaves and stem of a pre-flowering plant die over the winter. In the spring, the plant grows back from its root. In other words, the giant hogweed is a herbaceous perennial.
Hogweed raksasa biasa menghasilkan tangkai berbunga dalam waktu 3–5 tahun,[1][13] tetapi beberapa tanaman bisa saja sampai 8 tahun untuk bunga jika kondisi tidak memadai. Di Ceko, Salah satu tanaman bisa sampai 12 tahun sebelum berbunga.[14] Dalam berbagai kasus, ketika tanaman berbunga, hal ini terjadi antara Juni dan Juli (di belahan bumi utara).
Seeds are typically produced in August. A single flowering plant will produce 20,000 seeds on average[15][13] with seed production varying between 10,000 and 50,000 seeds per plant.[14]
Giant hogweed is a monocarpic perennial,[13][8][9] that is, after a mature plant flowers and produces seed, the entire plant dies. During the following winter, tall dead stems mark the locations where the flowering plants once stood.
The seeds are dispersed short distances by wind, but can travel longer distances by water, animals, and people. Most seeds (95%) are found in the top 5 cm (2 in) of the soil within a few meters of the parent plant. Seeds may stay alive in the seed bank for more than five years.[14][15]
A seed deposited in the seed bank is initially dormant. Dormancy is broken by the cold and wet conditions of fall and winter, and so freshly deposited seeds lie dormant until at least the following spring, at which time approximately 90% of the previously dormant seeds will germinate.[13][8] The rest remain dormant in the seed bank.
Seeds normally result from cross-pollination between two or more plants but self-pollination is also possible. More than half the seeds produced by self-pollination will germinate and give rise to healthy seedlings.[13] Hence a single isolated seed may give rise to a colony of new plants.
The various species of the genus Heracleum are similar in appearance, but vary in size.[8] H. mantegazzianum is among the tallest, typically reaching 4 m (13 ft) high (atau terkadang lebih dari 5 m (16 ft)), whereas Heracleum species native to Western Europe, such as ordinary Hogweed (H sphondlylium), or North America, such as the cow parsnip (H. maximum), rarely exceed 3 m (10 ft) high.[8][10][13] There are considerable differences in the size of the umbel, leaves, and stem of H. mantegazzianum as well.
The following table compares Heracleum mantegazzianum and Heracleum maximum feature by feature:
Spesies tanaman lain dari famili Apiaceae mempunyai fitur dimana serupa dari hogweed raksasa (H. mantegazzianum). Contoh:
Many more species exist; in Europe, over 20 spesies are found of the genus Heracleum alone.[13]
Tidak ada spesies yang mencapai ukuran serupa, tetapi banyak mempunyai fototoksin.
Some other species, such as the abovementioned Heracleum sosnowskyi and Heracleum persicum, do reach similar sizes, and are equally noxious as a result.
Heracleum mantegazzianum is native to the western Caucasus region of Eurasia.[1] Because of its impressive size, giant hogweed was brought to Europe and North America as an ornamental plant and garden curiosity.
The following historical information[13][16][17][14] grew out of the European Giant Alien Project, which began in 2005.
Heracleum mantegazzianum was first described in scientific literature in 1895 but by that time more than a dozen European countries had already imported the plant as an "ornamental curiosity". The introduction of Heracleum mantegazzianum was first recorded in Great Britain in 1817 when it was put on the seed list at the Kew Botanic Gardens in London. By 1828, the first natural population was recorded, growing wild in Cambridgeshire, England.
The spread of Heracleum mantegazzianum throughout Europe continued unabated until the middle of the 20th century, at which time the dangers of giant hogweed had become more widely known. Despite the warnings, however, the plant continued to be used by gardeners, beekeepers, and farmers (for cattle fodder) for another 50 years. Heracleum mantegazzianum was finally de-listed by the Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain in 2002.
During the 20th century, giant hogweed was transported to the United States and Canada for display in arboreta and Victorian gardens. The earliest recorded planting in North America was in 1917, in gardens near Highland Park in the city of Rochester, New York.
By 1950, giant hogweed had appeared in southern Ontario, and within a quarter century, the plant was firmly established in Ontario. It was first collected from Nova Scotia in 1980 and Quebec in 1990. Giant hogweed was still available for sale in Canadian nurseries as late as 2005.
On the west coast of North America, Heracleum mantegazzianum appeared in Oregon, Washington, and southwestern Canada but it is not clear how the species found its way into this region. First reports of giant hogweed in British Columbia were published in the 1930s.
Giant hogweed is native to Russia and was further distributed during the late 1960s, later spreading extensively on its own throughout Russia and eastern Europe.[1]
Hogweed raksasa tersebar luas di seluruh Eropa barat dan utara, terutama di sepanjang daerah seperti pesisir dan tepi sungai.[1] Dengan terbentuknya kepadatan, ini akan menggantikan tanaman aslinya dan mengurangi habitat alam liar.[1][18] Ini juga tersebar di barat laut dan timur laut Amerika Serikat, dan Kanada Selatan dan ini termasuk spesies invasif sepanjang Eropa Barat;[1] di lokasi di mana telah berada, ini melampaui spesies asli setempat, Heracleum sphondylium.[18]
Di Kanada, tanaman ini ada di hampir seluruh provinsinya, kecuali di padang rumput.[1] Ini terakhir terlihat di Quebec semenjak awal 1990-an.[19] Tanaman ini telah tersebar di Ontario dari barat daya dan terlihat pada 2010 di Area Pusat Toronto dan County Renfrew di dekat Ottawa.[20]
In the United States, giant hogweed occurs in Maine, Wisconsin and south to Indiana, Michigan, Maryland, and New Jersey.[21][14][22] In June 2018, it was reported growing in Virginia and North Carolina.[23][24] The plant is federally listed as a noxious weed in the US.[21]
Giant hogweed is widespread in Russia and the Baltic states, and present in eastern Europe.[1]
Getah dari hogweed raksasa adalah fototoksik. Kontak dengan getah tanaman ini bisa mencegah pelindungan kulit dari sinar matahari, yang mengarah ke fitofotodermatitis, peradangan kulit serius.[25] Reaksi fototoksin bisa terjadi pada 15 menit pertama setelah kontak dengan getahnya. Fotosentisifitas berlangsung antara 30 menit dan 2 jam setelah kontak dan juga bisa dalam beberapa hari.[13][8] Otoritas mengingatkan manusia (tidak terkecuali anak-anak) harus menjauhi tanaman hogweed raksasa.[26][27][28] Baju dengan pelindungan berlapis, juga pelindungan mata, harus dipakai saat mendekati tanaman. Bagian-bagian badan yang bersentuhan dengan getah dari hogweed raksasa harus langsung mencuci tangan dengan sabun dan air dingin, dan paparan sinar matahari lebih lanjut harus dihindari setidaknya 48 jam.[13][18][25] spesies Heracleum lain, misalnya lobak sapi (Heracleum maximum), juga bersifat fototoksik, dan karenanya peringatan serupa disarankan. Karena kemiripan secara fisik dengan renda ratu Anne, hogweed raksasa dan relativitasnya terkadang disalahkan sebagai tanaman tidak berbahaya.[29]
Because of its phototoxicity and invasive nature, giant hogweed is often actively removed. The European Union funded the Giant Alien project to combat the plant.[30][31][32] On August 2, 2017, it added the species to its List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern,[33] thus placing restrictions on keeping, importing, selling, breeding and growing it and requiring governments to detect and eradicate it throughout the EU. In the United Kingdom, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 makes it an offence to plant or cause giant hogweed to grow in the wild.[18][34]
In the United States, hogweed is regulated as a federal noxious weed by the U.S. government, and is illegal to import into the United States or move interstate without a permit from the Department of Agriculture.[35] The USDA Forest Service states pigs and cattle can eat it without apparent harm.[36] The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has had an active program to control giant hogweed since 2008.[37] In 2011, Maine state horticulturists, describing the plant as "renda Ratu Anne di steroid", reported that it has been found at 21 different locations in Maine, with the number of plants ranging from one to a hundred.[38]
Album 1971 Nursery Cryme dari grup rok progresif Genesis mengandung musik "The Return of the Giant Hogweed". Dengan lirik yang sangat lucu[39] Menceritakan serangan lomba manusia dengan Heracleum mantegazzianum, lama setelah tanaman 'ditangkap' dan dibawa ke Inggris oleh seorang penjelajah Victoria.[40]
Dalam Musim 10 Episode 3 "Ghosts" (yang tayang perdana pada 20 Oktober 2019) dari seri televisi AMC The Walking Dead, karakter Aaron diserang "pejalan" yang ada bunga hogweed berkembang dari mayat yang membusuk. Aaron berjalan ke kontak jarak dekat hogweed, membuatnya tidak dapat melihat dengan baik, dan lebih rentan terhadap bahaya.[41]
Di novel 1985, Curse of the Giant Hogweed, pencipta misteri populer Charlotte MacLeod menempatkan karakter mapannya Peter Shandy dan rekan-rekannya dalam versi fantasi Wales untuk menyelidiki hogweed raksasa yang membahayakan pagar tanaman Inggris.[42]
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Gerhana total | |||||||||||||||||
![]() Akhir totalitas di Oria, 5:43 UTC | |||||||||||||||||
Tanggal | 20 Januari 2019 | ||||||||||||||||
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Gamma | 0.3684 | ||||||||||||||||
Magnitudo | 1.1953 | ||||||||||||||||
Siklus Saros | 134 (27 of 73) | ||||||||||||||||
Totalitas | 61 menit, 59 detik | ||||||||||||||||
Sebagian | 196 menit, 45 detik | ||||||||||||||||
Penumbra | 311 menit, 30 detik | ||||||||||||||||
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Gerhana bulan terjadi pada tanggal 21 Januari 2019 UTC {Waktu Universal Terkoodirnasi). Untuk pengamat dari Amerika, Gerhana ini terjadi sore, 20 Januari dan berakhir pada dini hari, 21 Januari. Untuk pengamat dari Eropa dan Afrika, gerhana ini terjadi pada dini hari, 21 Januari. Bulan sempat mendekati perigeo pada 21 Januari dan juga disebut "superbulan".[1]
Dari superbulan tersebut juga disebut bulan serigala (bulan purnama pertama pada setahun kalender), hal ini juga menyebutnya "superbulan serigala darah"; diambil dari warna merah yang khas saat gerhana bulan tersebut.[2] Gerhana ini adalah gerhana bulan total terakhir hingga Mei 2021. Ini adalah Superbulan Purnama karena terjadi kurang dari sehari sebelum perigee dan Bulan ini jaraknya kurang dari 360,000 km (223,694 mi).
Observatorium Griffith di Los Angeles menangkap sebuah klip dimana sebuah meteor antara biji ek dan bola tenis bertabrakan saat gerhana.[3] Tabrakan tersebut terjadi pada pukul 4:41 UTC, dari sisi kiri dari bulan.[4] Ini salah satu tabrakan yang terdokumentasi ketika gerhana sedang berlangsung.[5][6]
Gerhana ini terlihat di Amerika Utara dan Amerika Selatan, juga sebagian dari Eropa Barat dan Afrika Utara. Untuk beberapa tempat di Amerika Utara, gerhana mulai pada sore tanggal 20 Januari, the eclipse began during the evening hours of January 20. Observers at locations in Europe and much of Africa were able to view part of the eclipse before the Moon set in the early morning (pre-dawn) hours of January 21.
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Seluruh fase gerhana total ini tidak terlihat di Indonesia.
Fase penumbra sedikit mengubah tampilan bulan, terlihat samar dan tidak menyadarinya.[7]
Time zone
adjustments from UTC |
Amerika | Atlantik | Eropa/Afrika | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
-8h | -7h | -6h | -5h | -4h | -3h | -2h | -1h | 0h | +1h | +2h | +3h | ||
PST | MST | CST | EST | AST | GMT | WEST | CEST | FET | |||||
Kontak | Sore, 20 Januari | Pagi, 21 Januari | |||||||||||
P1 | Penumbra mulai* | 6:37 pm | 7:37 pm | 8:37 pm | 9:37 pm | 10:37 pm | 11:37 pm | 12:37 am | 1:37 am | 2:37 am | 3:37 am | 4:37 am | 5:37 am |
U1 | Sebagian mulai | 7:34 pm | 8:34 pm | 9:34 pm | 10:34 pm | 11:34 pm | 12:34 am | 1:34 am | 2:34 am | 3:34 am | 4:34 am | 5:34 am | 6:34 am |
U2 | Total mulai | 8:41 pm | 9:41 pm | 10:41 pm | 11:41 pm | 12:41 am | 1:41 am | 2:41 am | 3:41 am | 4:41 am | 5:41 am | 6:41 am | 7:41 am |
Puncak | 9:12 pm | 10:12 pm | 11:12 pm | 12:12 am | 1:12 am | 2:12 am | 3:12 am | 4:12 am | 5:12 am | 6:12 am | 7:12 am | 8:12 am | |
U3 | Total berakhir | 9:43 pm | 10:43 pm | 11:43 pm | 12:43 am | 1:43 am | 2:43 am | 3:43 am | 4:43 am | 5:43 am | 6:43 am | 7:43 am | 8:43 am |
U4 | Sebagian berakhir | 10:51 pm | 11:51 pm | 12:51 am | 1:51 am | 2:51 am | 3:51 am | 4:51 am | 5:51 am | 6:51 am | 7:51 am | 8:51 am | 9:51 am |
P4 | Penumbra berakhir* | 11:48 pm | 12:48 am | 1:48 am | 2:48 am | 3:48 am | 4:48 am | 5:48 am | 6:48 am | 7:48 am | 8:48 am | 9:48 am | 10:48 am |
Terjadi pada konstelasi Kanser, tepatnya di barat Gugus Sarang Lebah.
Livestream mendeteksi kilauan cahaya ketika melihat gerhana. Ini adalah "ini kemungkinan tabrakan dari meteoroid berukuran kecil dan cepat yang ditinggal oleh komet."[5]
Aslinya memikir adalah suara dari kamera, astronomers and citizen scientists shared the visual phenomenon with each other to identify it.[5]
When totality was just beginning at 4:41 UT, the tiny speck of light blinked south of a nearly 55-mile-wide crater in the western part of the moon.[8]
The location of the impact may be somewhere in the lunar highlands, selatan kawah Byrgius, menurut Justin Cowart, seorang mahasiswa yang lulus geosains dari Universitas Stony Brook, New York yang pertama kali menangkap kedipan cahaya[5]
“A meteoroid about this size hits the moon about once a week or so,” said Cowart.[8]
This may be the first time that a collision, during a total lunar eclipse, was captured on video.[5]
“I have not heard of anyone seeing an impact like this during a lunar eclipse before,” said Sara Russell, a professor of planetary sciences at the Natural History Museum in London.[5]
People posted their images and video of a flicker of light as news spread quickly on social media.[8]
Working overtime, co-director of the Deteksi dan Analisis Tabrakan Bulan, MIDAS, an astrophysicist at the Universitas Huelva di Spanyol, Jose Maria Madiedo, set up eight telescopes to watch for any impacts during the eclipse.[8]
“Something inside of me told me that this time would be the time,” kata Madiedo.[8]
A paper calculated a mass between 20 and 100 kilograms and diameter of 30 to 50 cm that may have caused a 7–15 meter crater located "inside a triangle with vertices in the kawah Lagrange H, K and X".[9] Other astronomers estimated a 10-15 meter crater from a 45 kg asteroid moving 61,000 km/h.[10]
Seri gerhana bulan 2016-2020 | ||||||||
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Nodus menurun | Nodus menaik | |||||||
Saros | Tanggal Peta |
Tipe Tampilan |
Gama | Saros | Tanggal Peta |
Tipe Tampilan |
Gamma | |
109 | 18 Agustus 2016![]() |
Penumbra![]() |
1.56406 | 114![]() |
11 Februari 2017![]() |
Penumbra![]() |
-1.02548 | |
119![]() |
07 Agustus 2017![]() |
Sebagian![]() |
0.86690 | 124![]() |
31 Januari 2018![]() |
Total![]() |
-0.30143 | |
129![]() |
27 Juli 2018![]() |
Total![]() |
0.11681 | 134![]() |
21 Januari 2019![]() |
Total![]() |
0.36842 | |
139![]() |
16 Juli 2019![]() |
Sebagian![]() |
-0.64300 | 144![]() |
10 Januari 2020![]() |
Penumbra![]() |
1.07270 | |
149 | 05 Juli 2020![]() |
Penumbral![]() |
-1.36387 | |||||
Set terakhir | 16 September 2016 | Set terakhir | 23 Maret 2016 | |||||
Set berikutnya | 05 Juni 2020 | Set berikutnya | 30 November 2020 |
Gerhana ini bagian dari Siklus Saros seri 134.
Sebuah gerhana bulan akan didahului dan diteruskan oleh gerhana matahari selama 9 tahun 5,5 hari (sebuah siklus setengah saros).[11] Gerhana bulan ini telah terkait 2 gerhana matahari cincin yang merupakan bagian dari Saros Matahari 141.
15 Januari 2010 | 26 Januari 2028 |
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Magnitudo Penumbra = 2.16972 (216.972%)
Magnitudo Umbra = 1.19657 (119.657%)
Gama = 0.36842 (36.945%)
Epsilon = 0.3763° (0°22’34.68”)
Puncak Gerhana = 2019 Jan 21 at 05:12:18.0 UTC
Oposisi Ekliptika = 2019 Jan 21 at 05:16:04.9 UTC
Oposisi Khatulistiwa = 2019 Jan 21 at 05:07:42.5 UTC
Kenaikan Kanan dari Khatulistiwa Matahari = 20.205h
Deklinasi Khatulistiwa Matahari = -19.96°
Diameter Matahari Tampak = 1950.4 detik busur
Paralaks Horisontal Khatulistiwa Matahari = 17.8 arcseconds
Moon’s Equatorial Right Ascension = 8.208h
Moon’s Equatorial Declination = +20.34°
Moon’s Apparent Diameter = 2004.2 arcseconds
Moon’s Equatorial Horizontal Parallax = 7355.8 arcseconds
Earth’s Shadow’s Equatorial Right Ascension = 8.205h
Earth’s Shadow’s Equatorial Declination = +19.96°
Earth’s Penumbral Shadow Diameter = 9424.8 arcseconds
Earth’s Umbral Shadow Diameter = 5523.84 arcseconds
Saros = 134 (27 dari 73)
Nodus Orbit = Nodus Menaik
Jarak Bulan = 357,718 km (222,276 mi)
Martabak mini | |
---|---|
Nama lain | Martabak jadul |
Jenis | Jajanan jalanan |
Sajian | Toping:
Adonan:
|
Tempat asal | Indonesia |
Bahan utama | Tepung |
Variasi | |
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Martabak mini adalah varian dari terang bulan dan martabak yang berdiameter kurang dari 5 cm. Metode penjualan adalah menggunakan sepeda motor sebagai pedagang kaki lima di dekat fasilitas umum, seperti taman, hingga sekolah.
Martabak mini termasuk jajanan jalan populer karena dari harga lebih murah daripada kue terang bulan dan martabak. Martabak mini populer karena banyak macam variasi, mulai dari toping dan adonan yang beraneka macam.[1] Martabak mini biasanya terlihat lebih pucat dan dipotong kecil-kecil.
Harga dari martabak mini biasanya berharga Rp1.000, dan ada juga yang berharga Rp500.[2]
Martabak mini biasa di jual pada trotoar, halaman sekolah, taman.
Bahan berbahaya dan beracun, disingkatkan B3, adalah substansi ketika diangkut akan berisiko untuk kesehatan, keselamatan, properti atau lingkungan. Barang berbahaya tertentu yang menimbulkan risiko meskipun tidak diangkut disebut material berbahaya (terabreviasi secara silabis sebagai kata HAZMAT atau hazmat). Contoh dari B3 adalah limbah berbahaya ketika limbah yang memiliki substansial atau masalah ke kesehatan umum atau lingkungan.[1]
Hazardous materials are often subject to chemical regulations. Hazmat teams are personnel specially trained to handle dangerous goods, which include materials that are radioactive, flammable, explosive, corrosive, oxidizing, asphyxiating, biohazardous, toxic, pathogenic, or allergenic. Also included are physical conditions such as compressed gases and liquids or hot materials, including all goods containing such materials or chemicals, or may have other characteristics that render them hazardous in specific circumstances.
Dangerous goods are often indicated by diamond-shaped signage on the item (see NFPA 704), its container, or the building where it is stored. The color of each diamond indicates its hazard, e.g., flammable is indicated with red, because fire and heat are generally of red color, and explosive is indicated with orange, because mixing red (flammable) with yellow (oxidizing agent) creates orange. A nonflammable and nontoxic gas is indicated with green, because all compressed air vessels were this color in France after World War II, and France was where the diamond system of hazmat identification originated.
Templat:TOC level
Lihat pula: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals |
The most widely applied regulatory scheme is that for the transportation of dangerous goods. The United Nations Economic and Social Council issues the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, which form the basis for most regional, national, and international regulatory schemes. For instance, the International Civil Aviation Organization has developed dangerous goods regulations for air transport of hazardous materials that are based upon the UN model but modified to accommodate unique aspects of air transport. Individual airline and governmental requirements are incorporated with this by the International Air Transport Association to produce the widely used IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR).[2] Similarly, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has developed the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code ("IMDG Code", part of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) for transportation of dangerous goods by sea. IMO member countries have also developed the HNS Convention to provide compensation in case of dangerous goods spills in the sea.
The Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage by Rail has developed the regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail ("RID", part of the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail). Many individual nations have also structured their dangerous goods transportation regulations to harmonize with the UN model in organization as well as in specific requirements.
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed upon system set to replace the various classification and labeling standards used in different countries. The GHS uses consistent criteria for classification and labeling on a global level.
Lihat pula: List of UN Numbers |
Dangerous goods are assigned to UN numbers and proper shipping names according to their hazard classification and their composition. Dangerous goods commonly carried are listed in the Dangerous Goods list.[3]
Examples for UN numbers and proper shipping names are:
Lihat pula: GHS hazard pictograms |
Dangerous goods are divided into nine classes (in addition to several subcategories) on the basis of the specific chemical characteristics producing the risk.[4]
Note: The graphics and text in this article representing the dangerous goods safety marks are derived from the United Nations-based system of identifying dangerous goods. Not all countries use precisely the same graphics (label, placard or text information) in their national regulations. Some use graphic symbols, but without English wording or with similar wording in their national language. Refer to the dangerous goods transportation regulations of the country of interest.
For example, see the TDG Bulletin: Dangerous Goods Safety Marks[5] based on the Canadian Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulations.
The statement above applies equally to all the dangerous goods classes discussed in this article.
Templat:Hazardous Material Placards
Mitigating the risks associated with hazardous materials may require the application of safety precautions during their transport, use, storage and disposal. Most countries regulate hazardous materials by law, and they are subject to several international treaties as well. Even so, different countries may use different class diamonds for the same product. For example, in Australia, anhydrous ammonia UN 1005 is classified as 2.3 (toxic gas) with subsidiary hazard 8 (corrosive), whereas in the U.S. it is only classified as 2.2 (non-flammable gas).[6]
People who handle dangerous goods will often wear protective equipment, and metropolitan fire departments often have a response team specifically trained to deal with accidents and spills. Persons who may come into contact with dangerous goods as part of their work are also often subject to monitoring or health surveillance to ensure that their exposure does not exceed occupational exposure limits.
Laws and regulations on the use and handling of hazardous materials may differ depending on the activity and status of the material. For example, one set of requirements may apply to their use in the workplace while a different set of requirements may apply to spill response, sale for consumer use, or transportation. Most countries regulate some aspect of hazardous materials.
Packing groups are used for the purpose of determining the degree of protective packaging required for dangerous goods during transportation.
One of the transport regulations is that, as an assistance during emergency situations, written instructions how to deal in such need to be carried and easily accessible in the driver’s cabin.[8]
Dangerous goods shipments also require a dangerous goods transport document prepared by the shipper. The information that is generally required includes the shipper's name and address; the consignee's name and address; descriptions of each of the dangerous goods, along with their quantity, classification, and packaging; and emergency contact information. Common formats include the one issued by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) for air shipments and the form by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for sea cargo.[9]
A license or permit card for hazmat training must be presented when requested by officials.[10]
The international community has defined the responsible management of hazardous waste and chemicals as an important part of sustainable development with Sustainable Development Goal 3. Target 3.9 has this target with respect to hazardous chemicals: "By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination."[11] Furthermore, Sustainable Development Goal 6 also mentions hazardous materials in Target 6.3: "By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials [...]."[12]
Due to the increase in fear of terrorism in the early 21st century after the September 11, 2001 attacks, funding for greater hazmat-handling capabilities was increased throughout the United States, recognizing that flammable, poisonous, explosive, or radioactive substances in particular could be used for terrorist attacks.
The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration regulates hazmat transportation within the territory of the US by Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulates the handling of hazardous materials in the workplace as well as response to hazardous-materials-related incidents, most notably through Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER).[13] regulations found at 29 CFR 1910.120.
In 1984 the agencies OSHA, EPA, USCG, and NIOSH jointly published the first Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Guidance Manual[13] which is available for download.[14]
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates hazardous materials as they may impact the community and environment, including specific regulations for environmental cleanup and for handling and disposal of waste hazardous materials. For instance, transportation of hazardous materials is regulated by the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act was also passed to further protect human and environmental health.[15]
The Consumer Product Safety Commission regulates hazardous materials that may be used in products sold for household and other consumer uses.
Following the UN model, the DOT divides regulated hazardous materials into nine classes, some of which are further subdivided. Hazardous materials in transportation must be placarded and have specified packaging and labelling. Some materials must always be placarded, others may only require placarding in certain circumstances.[16]
Trailers of goods in transport are usually marked with a four digit UN number. This number, along with standardized logs of hazmat information, can be referenced by first responders (firefighters, police officers, and ambulance personnel) who can find information about the material in the Emergency Response Guidebook.[17]
Different standards usually apply for handling and marking hazmats at fixed facilities, including NFPA 704 diamond markings (a consensus standard often adopted by local governmental jurisdictions), OSHA regulations requiring chemical safety information for employees, and CPSC requirements requiring informative labeling for the public, as well as wearing hazmat suits when handling hazardous materials.