M-learning or mobile learning is "learning across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic devices".^{[1]: page 4} A form of distance education, m-learners use mobile device educational technology at their convenient time.^[2]

M-learning technologies include handheld computers, MP3 players, notebooks, mobile phones and tablets. M-learning focuses on the mobility of the learner, interacting with portable technologies. Using mobile tools for creating learning aids and materials becomes an important part of informal learning.^[3]

M-learning is convenient in that it is accessible from virtually anywhere. Sharing is almost instantaneous among everyone using the same content, which leads to the reception of instant feedback and tips. This highly active process has proven to increase exam scores from the fiftieth to the seventieth percentile, and cut the dropout rate in technical fields by 22 percent.^[4] M-learning also brings strong portability by replacing books and notes with small devices, filled with tailored learning contents. M-learning has the added benefit of being cost effective, as the price of digital content on tablets is falling sharply compared to the traditional media (books, CD and DVD, etc.). One digital textbook, for instance, costs one-third to half the price of a paper textbook (AFD, 2012), with zero marginal cost.^[5]

Some of the possibilities offered by this methodology, according to Fombona, Pascual-Sevillana and González-Videgaray, are a greater and different access to information, along with transcendent innovations, such as the increase of informal and playful activities, iconic virtual, membership of specific groups, and networks of friendly interaction within new scales of values.^[6]

Mobile learning is the delivery of learning, education or learning support on mobile phones, PDAs or tablets.^[7]

New mobile technology, such as hand-held based devices, is playing a large role in redefining how people receive information. "Numerous agencies including the Department of Defense (DoD), Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Intelligence community, and law enforcement are utilizing mobile technology for information management."^[8]

Concepts of m-learning was given by Alan Kay in 1970s. He joined Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center and formed a group to develop "Dynabook", which is a portable and hands on personal computer. It aimed to let children have access to the digital world.^[9] This project failed eventually due to the lack of technological support at that time. Until 1994, first smart phone, IBM Simon, was created by Mitsubishi Electric Corp. It was defined as a handheld personal communicator.^[10] From then on, technological companies started to design the so-called "smartphones". The creation of smartphone provided the platform for mobile-learning, and current of mobile device innovation pushed mobile learning to project and research status.

Chronologically, m-learning research has been characterized into three phases: first phase is the focus upon devices; second is the focus on learning outside the classroom; third phase is the focus on the mobility of the learner.^[11] At its second phase, around 2005, a tremendous number of projects have been completed, four major projects are "The Leonardo da Vinci project From e-learning to m-learning led by Ericsson Education Dublin", "The Leonardo da Vinci project Mobile learning: the next generation of learning led by Ericsson Education Dublin", "The IST project M-Learning led by the United Kingdom government Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA)" and "The IST project MOBILearn led by Giunti Ricerca of Genoa, Italy". These projects are mainly targeted on the effects of m-learning, like motivation to learn, engagement in learning activities and focus on special needs people;^[12] they set the tone for mobile learning, m-learning is prepared to transfer from project status to mainstream education and training.^[13]

And M-learning research is globalized now: Africa, Asia, North America, Europe, Scandinavia, Australia and New Zealand all have remarkable achievement in this field.^[11]

Applications in classrooms and other learning spaces combine the use of handheld computers, PDAs, smartphones or handheld voting systems (such as clickers) with traditional resources (Tremblay 2010) harv error: no target: CITEREFTremblay2010 (help).

Class management

Mobile devices in brick-and-mortar classrooms can be used to enhance student-centered learning, group collaboration among students through communication applications, interactive displays, and video features.^[14]

• Existing mobile technology can replace cumbersome resources such as textbooks, visual aids, and presentation technology.^[15]
• Interactive and multi-mode technology allows students to engage and manipulate information.
• Mobile Device features with WIFI capabilities allow for on-demand access to information.^[15]
• Access to classroom activities and information on mobile devices provides a continuum for learning inside and outside the classroom.^[16]

In a literature review conducted by FutureLab, researchers found that increased communication, collaboration, and understanding of concepts was a result of mobile technology applications.^[16]

Distance Learning

Mobile devices can be used in online settings to enhance learning experiences.^[17]

• The mobile phone (through text SMS notices) can be used especially for distance education or with students whose courses require them to be highly mobile and in particular to communicate information regarding availability of assignment results, venue changes and cancellations, etc.
• Mobile devices facilitate online interaction between teacher and student, and student to student. Mobile devices make it possible to facilitate interaction in real time, allowing students to obtain immediate feedback. Educators can also assess student comprehension by using mobile devices, which provide real time updates on student progress, enabling teachers to adapt and personalize their teaching.^[5]
• It can also be of value to business people, e.g. sales representatives who do not wish to waste time away from their busy schedules to attend formal training events.

Podcasting

Podcasting consists of listening to audio recordings of lectures. It can be used to review live lectures (Clark & Westcott 2007) harv error: no target: CITEREFClarkWestcott2007 (help) and to provide opportunities for students to rehearse oral presentations. Podcasts may also provide supplemental information to enhance traditional lectures (McGarr 2009) harv error: no target: CITEREFMcGarr2009 (help) (Steven & Teasley 2009) harv error: no target: CITEREFStevenTeasley2009 (help).

Psychological research suggests that university students who download podcast lectures achieve substantially higher exam results than those who attend the lecture in person (only in cases in which students take notes) (Callaway & Ewen 2009) harv error: no target: CITEREFCallawayEwen2009 (help).

Podcasts may be delivered using syndication, although this method of delivery is not always easily adopted (Lee, Miller & Newnham 2009) harv error: no target: CITEREFLeeMillerNewnham2009 (help).

M-learning in the context of work can embrace a variety of different forms of learning. It has been defined as the "processes of coming to know, and of being able to operate successfully in, and across, new and ever changing contexts, including learning for, at and through work, by means of mobile devices".^[18]

• M-learning for work
• M-learning at and through work
• Cross-contextual m-learning

Learning for work, which could be also described as 'just-in-case' learning, involves classic and formal education activities, such as training courses, that prepare learners for future work-related tasks. A typical, corporate application is the delivery of mobile compliance training, which can be seen as a viable means to reach geographically mobile employees, such as consultants^[19] or staff in logistic and transport systems.^[20] Another application is mobile simulations that prepare learners for future situations, for example real-time SMS-based simulations for disaster response training.^[21]

Learning at and through work, which could be labelled as "just-in-time" mobile learning,^[22] occurs in informal education settings at the workplace. Employees can use the mobile phone to solve problems via handheld devices in situ, for example by accessing informational resources (such as checklists and reference guides) prior to customer visits^[23] or mobile decision support systems. The latter are popular in clinical settings where they support highly mobile medical staff through rule-based algorithms in the decision regarding more complex patient cases. Their application was associated with learning and in particular with practice improvement of medical staff.^[24] Learning through work also occurs by interacting with distant peers via phone. "People tagging" is an approach whereby people assign topics they associate with co-workers. The aggregation of interests and experiences serves not only as a means to raise awareness but also to help find competent experts on demand,^[25] for example with context-sensitive expert location systems.

Cross-contextual learning that bridges the gap between work settings and formal education formats has perhaps the biggest potential for work-based mobile learning,^[18] especially with respect to tertiary education systems. This involves approaches in which learning in the workplace is facilitated and substantiated (for example through formative assessments,^[26] reflective questions^[27] or the documentation of personal achievements in multimedia learning diaries or portfolios^[28]) The so-created materials are later used in more formal educational formats, for example in the classroom or in the discussion with tutors. The value of these mobile phone-mediated learning practices lies in the integration and reconciliation of work-based learning and formal education experiences which otherwise tend to remain separated.

Mobile technologies and approaches, i.e. mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), are also used to assist in language learning. For instance handheld computers, cell phones, and podcasting (Horkoff & Kayes2008) harv error: no target: CITEREFHorkoffKayes2008 (help) have been used to help people acquire and develop language skills.

• Improving levels of literacy, numeracy, and participation in education amongst young adults.
• Using the communication features of a mobile phone as part of a larger learning activity, e.g.: sending media or texts into a central portfolio, or exporting audio files from a learning platform to your phone.
• Developing workforce skills and readiness among youth and young adults.^[29]

Refugees are confronted with a number of individual challenges that can negatively impact their learning and teaching opportunities, as well as their lives beyond the learning environment. Mobile solutions play a key role in enhancing refugees’ informal learning. Technology provides support for refugees' informal learning in the following challenges:^[30]

• Lack of language and literacy skills in host countries;
• Trauma and identity struggles;
• Disorientation in new environments;
• Exclusion and isolation.^[30]

In Pakistan, the Rehan School was one of the first initiatives to offer remote courses that could be accessed from a basic mobile phone. The application offers short educational sequences, showing how to write common names and words and conveying mathematical and scientific concepts. Sometimes featuring television personalities, the teaching sketches are intended for viewing on small telephone screens. The films are sold for a few cents in the telecoms boutiques and can then be exchanged by Bluetooth. The Rehan School estimates that over 40,000 individuals follow its lessons, but the real number is certainly higher.^[5]

In Papua New Guinea, the SMS Story project has improved teachers' classroom practices in teaching children to read by using short messages and sent by SMS.^[5]

Since the 1960s, various information and communication technologies have aroused strong interest in Sub-Saharan Africa as a way of increasing access to education, and enhancing its quality and fairness. In Sub-Saharan Africa, teachers and students are faced with an extreme shortage of teaching materials. The number of textbooks available are limited, so few students have individual access to textbooks in class or at home. Given the shortage of textbooks in many African schools, tablets and mobile phones are being viewed by governments and international organizations as a solution to provide access to learning materials. In one example, the Tangerine mobile assessment and coaching system, deployed in Kenya, aims to help teachers in their assessment activities. With Tangerine, a student's reading level can be evaluated by recording the student's answers on a mobile phone or a tablet. The data gathered by the application also allows comparisons of the learning levels of students according to their age, geographical area and gender.^[5]

A recent study on health professions education combined evidence from 29 studies, which included 3175 learners, and concluded that mLearning is as effective as traditional learning in terms of improving learner's knowledge and skill. The study highlights that mLearning is a novel educational strategy that is rapidly developing in the field of health professions education, "21 of the 29 included studies (72%) published between 2014 and 2017, it’s clear that mLearning is an emerging educational strategy. The remaining 8 studies were published between 2006 and 2013, with no studies published before 2006, further highlighting the modern nature of this approach to health professions education and its relevance"^[31]

The value of mobile learning^[32]

Tutors who have used m-learning programs and techniques have made the following value statements in favor of m-learning.

• It is important to bring new technology into the classroom.
• Devices used are more lightweight than books and PCs.
• Mobile learning can be used to diversify the types of learning activities students partake in (or a blended learning approach).
• Mobile learning supports the learning process rather than being integral to it.
• Mobile learning can be a useful add-on tool for students with special needs. However, for SMS and MMS this might be dependent on the students’ specific disabilities or difficulties involved.
• Mobile learning can be used as a ‘hook’ to re-engage disaffected youth.
• M-Learning can be designed to combine decision making in complex learning scenarios with formative scoring and assessment.^[33]

Benefits^[2][34][35]

• Relatively inexpensive opportunities, as the cost of mobile devices are significantly less than PCs and laptops
• Multimedia content delivery and creation options
• Continuous and situated learning support
• Decrease in training costs
• Potentially a more rewarding learning experience
• New opportunities for traditional educational institutions
• Readily available a/synchronous learning experience^[36]
• Decrease in textbook costs^[5]
• Access to personalized content^[5]
• Remote access to knowledge^[5]
• Improved literacy levels^[5]

Characterization of M-learning

• It can get access to information and educational experience faster than other media.
• It is supported by portable devices, its mobility makes it easy to use.
• Comparing to other methods of learning, the cost of M-learning is relatively low.
• Exchange of information can be encrypted or private.
• It is easy to access all kinds of information.

Aspects of M-learning

Along with the development of m-learning, many theories about mobile educations are raised by researchers, major aspects are listed.

• Mobile learning uses mobile technology and is portable.
• Mobile learning is a continuation and extension of e-learning.
• Mobile learning is learner-centered, "The learner plays an active role from determination of the goals until the evaluation stage"^[37]

Technical challenges

• Connectivity and battery life
• Screen size and key size^[38]
• Meeting required bandwidth for nonstop/fast streaming
• Number of file/asset formats supported by a specific device
• Content security or copyright issue from authoring group
• Multiple standards, multiple screen sizes, multiple operating systems
• Reworking existing E-Learning materials for mobile platforms
• Limited memory^[39]
• Risk of sudden obsolescence^[2]
• Security
• Work/life balance
• Cost of investment^[40]

Social and educational challenges^[41]

• Accessibility and cost barriers for end users: digital divide.
• How to assess learning outside the classroom
• How to support learning across many contexts^[42]
• Content's security or copyright infringement issues
• Frequent changes in device models/technologies/functionality etc.
• Developing an appropriate theory of learning for the mobile age
• Conceptual differences between e-learning and m-learning
• Design of technology to support a lifetime of learning^[43][44]
• Tracking of results and proper use of this information
• No restriction on learning timetable
• Personal and private information and content
• No demographic boundary
• Disruption of students' personal and academic lives^[45]
• Access to and use of the technology in developing countries^[46]
• Risk of distraction^[2]
• Mobile usage habits among different countries and regions^[47]

Mobile learning is widely used in schools, workplaces, museums, cities and rural areas around the world.^[48] In comparison to traditional classroom pedagogical approaches, mobile learning allows widened opportunities for timing, location, accessibility and context of learning.^[7][49]

Current areas of growth include:

• Testing, surveys, job aids and just-in-time (J.I.T.) learning
• Location-based and contextual learning
• Social-networked mobile learning
• Mobile educational gaming
• Delivering m-Learning to cellular phones using two way SMS messaging and voice-based CellCasting (podcasting to phones with interactive assessments)^[48]
• Cloud computer file storage^[34]

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Digital Services for Education in Africa​, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from A Lifeline to learning: leveraging mobile technology to support education for refugees​, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.