Impostor syndrome (also known as impostor phenomenon or fraud syndrome or the impostor experience) is a concept describing individuals who are marked by an inability to internalize their accomplishments and a persistent fear of being exposed as a "fraud". The term was coined in 1978 by clinical psychologists Pauline R. Clance and Suzanne A. Imes.[1] Despite external evidence of their competence, those exhibiting the syndrome remain convinced that they are frauds and do not deserve the success they have achieved. Proof of success is dismissed as luck, timing, or as a result of deceiving others into thinking they are more intelligent and competent than they believe themselves to be. While early research focused on the prevalence among high-achieving women[2], impostor syndrome has been found to affect both men and women, in roughly equal numbers.[3][4]
The impostor syndrome tends to be studied as a reaction to certain stimuli and events. It is not perceived to be a mental disorder, but it has been the topic of research for many psychologists. Though traditionally perceived as an ingrained personality trait, impostor syndrome has more recently been studied as a reaction to certain situations. Under this interpretation, it is a response experienced by many different people to situations that prompt such feelings. Though certain people are more prone to impostor feelings, experience them more intensely than most, and can be identified through the use of personality scales, evidence does not support impostor syndrome to be a distinct personality trait.[5]
The term "impostor syndrome" first appeared in an article written by Pauline R. Clance and Suzanne A. Imes who observed many high-achieving women tended to believe they were not intelligent, and that they were over-evaluated by others.[2] Another framework for understanding impostor syndrome is to re-name it "impostor experience". In the words of Clance, "If I could do it all over again, I would call it the impostor experience, because it's not a syndrome or a complex or a mental illness, it's something almost everyone experiences."[6] Reframing the vocabulary shifts one’s perspective to help them understand they are not isolated in this experience.
(2) Impostor experience can present itself through thoughts such as:[8]
(3) Impostor experience is a common phenomenon.
Imes and Clance's theory suggests several behaviours of high-achieving women with impostor syndrome:[2]
While studies primarily focused on women, recent studies have suggested that men may also be prone to impostor syndrome on similar levels.[9] [10] In addition, original researcher Clance suggests that the syndrome may be equally prevalent in males, although proposes that men process and act on it in different ways to women. [3]
A study by Queena Hoang suggested as example people of color may experience imposter syndrome as a result of suspecting they were given their position by affirmative action.[11] The research regarding impostor experience has traditionally highlighted groups who are excelling in areas that were not always readily accessible to them.[2] Likewise, said students have not always had access to institutions of higher education, which is another source that can create feelings of being an impostor.[12]
In 2013, a study conducted at the University of Texas at Austin revealed that Asian-American students are more likely than African-American or Latino students to experience feelings of being an impostor in college. This is potentially dangerous because correlational analyses showed that impostor feelings amongst underrepresented college students was a strong predictor of mental health issues.[13] If these feelings go unnoticed, students may suffer from anxiety, stress, and depression.[2] It may be hard to outwardly identify these students because students who express feeling symptoms of impostor syndrome are "often the most energetic, bright, and hardworking students amongst their peers".[11]
On the other hand, some scholars argue that feelings of impostor experience are potentially healthy and beneficial for career trajectory. This belief stems from understanding that everyone has a comfort zone, and personal/professional growth is likely to occur when one steps out of their comfort zone.[14]
Psychological research done in the early 1980s estimated that two out of five successful people consider themselves frauds and other studies have found that 70 percent of all people feel like impostors at one time or another. It is not considered a psychological disorder, and is not among the conditions described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (commonly known as the DSM). The term was coined by clinical psychologists Pauline Clance and Suzanne Imes in 1978.[2]
People who have reportedly experienced the syndrome include Academy Award-winning actor Tom Hanks,[15] screenwriter Chuck Lorre,[16] best-selling writer Neil Gaiman,[17] [18] best-selling writer John Green, comedian Tommy Cooper,[19] business leader Sheryl Sandberg, US Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor,[20] actress Emma Watson, [21] and entrepreneur Mike Cannon-Brookes [22].
The impostor syndrome is particularly common among high-achievers. Another demographic group that often suffers from this phenomenon is African Americans. Being the beneficiary of affirmative action may cause a person who belongs to a visible minority to doubt their own abilities and suspect that their skills were not what allowed them to be hired.[24] Impostor syndrome has been commonly reported by graduate students and scientists beginning tenure track positions.[25]
Impostor syndrome is not a formal mental disorder and does not have a standard definition, therefore there has not been a clear consensus as to treatment options available.[26] The syndrome has affected approximately 70% of the population worldwide;[27] however, it often goes unrecognized.[28] If it is not addressed, victims can develop anxiety, stress, low self-confidence, depression, shame and self-doubt.[26][29][30][31][32] People who suffer from impostor syndrome tend to reflect and dwell upon extreme failure, mistakes and negative feedback from others. If not addressed, impostor syndrome can limit exploration and the courage to delve into new experiences, in fear of exposing failure.[28][33]
A number of management options are available to ease impostor syndrome. The most prominent is to discuss the topic with other individuals early on in the career path.[28][11] Mentors can discuss experiences where impostor syndrome was prevalent.[28][30] Most people who experience impostor syndrome are unaware that others feel inadequate as well. Once the situation is addressed, victims no longer feel alone in their negative experience. It is also noted that reflecting upon impostor feelings is key to overcoming this burden.[34] Making a list of accomplishments, positive feedback and success stories will also aid to manage impostor syndrome.[11] Finally, developing a strong support system that provides feedback on performance and has discussions about impostor syndrome on a regular basis is imperative for those experiencing impostorship.[30][33]
Coherence therapy holds that unconscious emotional learning requires a person to act and respond with certain behaviors, moods, feelings, or beliefs. Unlike cognitive therapy, coherence therapy asserts that it can address our most fundamental learning stored in the sublimbic, right-hemispheric, and emotion-processing areas of the brain, which other talking psychotherapy and rational countermeasures cannot reach. Coherence therapists claim that effective treatment of impostor syndrome requires showing the person through experiential juxtapositions that the self-deprecation does not match the person's core emotional understanding.[35] [page needed] [need quotation to verify]
Writing therapy allows the person to organize their thoughts in writing. The written record of the person's objective accomplishments can enable the person to associate those accomplishments with reality, rather than simply dismissing the accomplishments internally. The written record can also remind the person of those accomplishments later. By these methods, writing therapy attempts to alleviate the person's sense of inadequacy.[36] [page needed] [need quotation to verify]
Studies of college students (Harvey, 1981; Bussotti, 1990; Langford, 1990), college professors (Topping, 1983), and successful professionals (Dingman, 1987) have all failed, however, to reveal any sex differences in impostor feelings, suggesting that males in these populations are just as likely as females to have low expectations of success and to make attributions to non-ability related factors.
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